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Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011. This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper , you may see instead of characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see. The Irish language Gaeilge , also incorrectly referred to as the Gaelic or the Irish Gaelic language, is a Gaelic of the originating in and historically spoken by the. Irish is spoken as a by a small minority of Irish people and as a by a larger group of non-native speakers. Irish has been the predominant language of the Irish people for most of their recorded history, and they brought it with them to other regions, notably and the , where gave rise to and respectively. It has in Western Europe. Irish has status as the of the and is an officially recognised. It is also among the official. The public body is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland. In the official written standard the name of the language is Gaeilge Irish pronunciation:. Before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge; originally this was the of Gaedhealg, the form used in. The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas , used to refer to the language family including Irish, is derived from the Old Irish term. The term Irish Gaelic is often used when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages Irish, and. Main article: Written Irish is first attested in inscriptions from the 4th century AD; this stage of the language is known as. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the and is attested primarily in to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some words, some via , including ecclesiastical terms: examples are easpag bishop from episcopus, and Domhnach Sunday, from dominica. By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into , which was spoken throughout Ireland and in and the. It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the. From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into in Scotland, and into the in the. Early Modern Irish, dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, as attested in the work of such writers as , may be said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on. From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, the prohibition on Irish in schools had the sanction of parents. Once it became apparent that immigration to the United States and Canada was likely for a large portion of the population, the importance of learning English became relevant. This allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. It has been estimated that, due to the immigration to the United States because of the Famine, anywhere from a quarter to a third of the immigrants were Irish speakers. Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts even when they knew English , and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language. This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language. The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League , and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature. Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament, commissioned by , was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival. Main article: Republic of Ireland Irish is given recognition by the as the national and first official language of the English is the other official language. Despite this, almost all government debates and business are conducted in English. In 1938, the founder of Gaelic League , , was inaugurated as the first. The record of his delivering his inaugural Declaration of Office in Irish remains almost the only surviving remnant of anyone speaking in that dialect. From the foundation of the in 1922 see also , a degree of proficiency in Irish was required of all those newly appointed to the , including , , agricultural inspectors, , etc. By law if a Garda was stopped and addressed in Irish he had to respond in Irish as well. Proficiency in just one official language for entrance to the public service was introduced in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the. Although the Irish requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money see also. Those wishing to teach in primary schools in the State must also pass a compulsory examination called Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge. The need for a pass in Irish or English for entry to the police was introduced in September 2005, and recruits are given lessons in the language during their two years of training. The most important official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by An Coimisinéir Teanga, the Irish language ombudsman. Exemptions are made from this requirement for students born outside of the Republic of Ireland, those who were born in the Republic but completed primary education outside it, and students diagnosed with. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 Section 3. The University faced controversy, however, in 2016 when it was announced that the next president of the University would not have any Irish. It was announced in September 2017 that Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh, a fluent Irish speaker, will be NUIG's 13th president. For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in mainstream English-medium schools to achieve competence in the language, even after fourteen years. The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern. In 2007, filmmaker found few speakers and some incredulity while speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary. There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas. Most of these are products of an independent education system in which Irish is the sole language of instruction. Such schools are known as. These Irish-medium schools send a much higher proportion of pupils on to tertiary level than do the mainstream schools, and it seems increasingly likely that, within a generation, habitual users of Irish will typically be members of an urban, middle class and highly educated minority. Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25. In November 2016, it was reported that many people worldwide were learning Irish through the app. In the 2016 census, around 10% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly. Gaeltacht Official areas There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a. These regions are known individually and collectively as the , or in the plural as Gaeltachtaí. While the Gaeltacht's fluent Irish speakers, whose numbers have been estimated at twenty or thirty thousand, are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in Gaeltacht areas that Irish continues, to some extent, to be spoken as a community vernacular. The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State. According to data compiled by the , only one quarter of households in officially Gaeltacht areas are fluent in Irish. In the 1920s, when the was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas. In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as Gaeltacht. Today, the strongest Gaeltacht areas, numerically and socially, are those of South , the west of the and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. There are larger Gaeltacht regions in Contae na Gaillimhe , including Connemara Conamara , the Oileáin Árann , An Cheathrú Rua and An Spidéal , on the west coast of Contae Dhún na nGall , and on the Corca Dhuibhne and Uibh Rathach in Contae Chiarraí. Smaller ones also exist in Counties Contae Mhaigh Eo , Contae na Mí , An Rinn, Contae Phort Láirge , and Contae Chorcaí. Gaoth Dobhair , County Donegal, is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland. A sign reads, Caution, Children Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged. The most popular summertime Gaeltacht is Coláiste Lurgan in Galway. Its main aim is to promote Irish speaking among young people in an enjoyable and stimulating way. Northern Ireland A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and. Between 1921 and 1972, had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the , the UUP , was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists. In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government. The language received a degree of from the United Kingdom, under the 1998 , and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the. While the British government promised to create legislation encouraging the language as part of the 2006 , as of 2014 it has yet to do so. The Irish Language is often used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, something which is often protested by organisations and groups such as. There is currently an ongoing debate in relation to the status of the language in the form of an Irish Language Act. While an official , only co-decision regulations must be available in Irish for the moment, due to a renewable five-year derogation on what has to be translated, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. Any expansion in the range of documents to be translated will depend on the results of the first five-year review and on whether the Irish authorities decide to seek an extension. The Irish government has committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs. Derogation is expected to end completely by 2022. Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish. Outside Ireland Main articles: and The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast , chiefly to and North America, but also to , and. The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the , which saw many Irish sent to the. Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine. This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was steadily establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them. Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established. The Gaelic revival, which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of Conradh na Gaeilge being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated. The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, a handful of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada; figures released for the period 2006—2008 show that 22,279 Americans claimed to speak Irish at home. The Irish language is also one of the languages of the , a non-governmental organisation that promotes self-determination and Celtic identity and culture in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, , and the Isle of Man, known as the. It places particular emphasis on the indigenous Celtic languages. The organisation has branches in all the Celtic nations and in , Argentina, , US, and , UK. Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the island of , in a form known as. Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers outside the education system , 20,586 27. Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress, intonation, vocabulary and structural features. Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide with the provinces of Cúige Mumhan , Cúige Chonnacht and Cúige Uladh. Records of some dialects of were made by the and others prior to their extinction. Leinster Down to the early 19th century and even later, Irish was spoken in all the counties of Leinster: , , , , , , , , , , and. The evidence furnished by placenames, literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there were three dialects spoken in Leinster: one main dialect and two of lesser significance. The minor dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth, which extended as far south as the , and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois. The main dialect was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the and southwards to , though with many local variations. The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference found in placenames for the pronunciation cr where the standard spelling is cn. The word cnoc hill would therefore be pronounced croc. Examples are the placenames Crooksling Cnoc Slinne in County Dublin and Crukeen Cnoicín in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like poll hole , cill monastery , coill wood , ceann head , cam crooked and dream crowd. A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of the vowel ao, which generally became ae in east Leinster as in Munster , and í in the west as in Connacht. Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge 1547 , by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde. The illustrative phrases he uses include the following with regularised Irish spelling in brackets : How are you? Sor, woll galow oket? Gath haad o showh go port laarg. Gah hon rah moyd holow? By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from , south of , to the garrison town of , with an inland boundary encompassing and in the and and in County Meath to the north. With the strengthening of English cultural and political control, language reversal began to occur, but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century. Even then, in the decennial period 1771—81, the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41%. By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3%. General decline English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century, but Irish speakers were still numerous. In the decennial period 1771—81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows though the estimates are likely to be too low : Kilkenny 57% Louth 57% Longford 22% Westmeath 17% The language saw its most rapid initial decline in Laois, Wexford, Wicklow, County Dublin and perhaps Kildare. The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s and virtually none in the 1860s. The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin. Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in , County Louth now available in digital form. The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon née Dobbin , who died in 1960. Munster Main article: Munster Irish is mainly spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of Contae Chiarraí , An Rinn near Dún Garbháin in Contae Phort Láirge and Muskerry Múscraí and Oileán Chléire in the western part of Contae Chorcaí. The most important subdivision in Munster is that between Decies Irish Na Déise spoken in Waterford and the rest of Munster Irish. Note that these are strong tendencies, and the personal forms Bhíos etc. Chím is replaced by feicim in the Standard. Connacht Main article: Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which stretched across the centre of Ireland to the east coast. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in and the. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway Gaillimh and Mayo Maigh Eo. The northern Mayo dialect of Iorras and Acaill is in grammar and essentially a Connacht dialect, but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the though it is this form of Irish which is closest to the true original Connacht dialect which would have been spoken in Counties Sligo, Roscommon, Leitrim and East Galway. Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, e. The non-standard pronunciation of the area with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before - nn, - m, - rr, - rd, - ll, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. The form '-aibh', when occurring at the end of words like 'agaibh', tends to be pronounced as an 'ee' sound. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional. The pronunciation prevalent in the the area around and is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words agam, agat and againn and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants. But there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as doiligh difficult and foscailte being preferred to the more usual deacair and oscailte. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as í: eile other , cosa feet and déanta done tend to be pronounced as eilí, cosaí and déantaí respectively. The Irish of Achill and Erris tends to differ from that of South Connacht in many aspects of vocabulary and, in some instances, of pronunciation. Irish President was possibly one of the last speakers of the dialect of Irish. Ulster Main article: Linguistically the most important of the dialects today is that of na Rossa , which has been used extensively in literature by such authors as the brothers and , locally known as Jimí Fheilimí and Joe Fheilimí. Ulster Irish sounds very different and shares several features with southern dialects of and , as well as having lots of characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see present-day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish. One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Manx Gaelic and Scots Gaelic is the use of the negative particle cha n in place of the Munster and Connacht ní. Though southern Ulster Irish tends to use ní more than cha n , cha n has almost ousted ní in northernmost dialects e. Urban aspect Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects. In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: gnóthuimh accusative case, the standard form being gnóthaí , tíorthuibh accusative case, the standard form being tíortha and leithscéalaibh genitive case, the standard form being leithscéalta. English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time. In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration rejecting the authority of the Pope read in Irish in so that people could understand it. Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note. Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin Maurice Gorman , a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services in English in Faulkner's Dublin Journal. In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo-Norman settlers, the so-called , were Irish-speaking or bilingual by the 16th century. The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed. The census of 1851 showed that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851. This continued until the end of the century, when the saw the creation of a strong Irish—speaking network, typically united by various branches of the , and accompanied by renewed literary activity. By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish. Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, over the last few decades, of a rapidly expanding independent school system, known generally as. These schools teach entirely through Irish, and there are over thirty in Dublin alone. It is likely that the number of urban native speakers i. It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media. Colloquial urban Irish is changing in unforeseen ways, with attention being drawn to the rapid loss of consonantal mutations which are intrinsic to the language. It is presently uncertain whether the urban Irish of non-native speakers will become a dialect in its own right or grow further apart from native Gaeltacht Irish and become a creole i. It was published by the translators in in the 1950s. Its development in the 1950s and 1960s had two purposes. One was to simplify Irish spelling, which had retained its Classical spelling, by removing many silent letters, and to give a standard written form that was by speakers with different dialects. In practice, dialect speakers pronounce words as in their own dialect; the spelling reflects the pronunciation of Classical Irish. The simplification was weighted in favour of the Western dialect. However, leaba is the historically correct nominative form and arguably preferable to the historically incorrect yet common use of the dative form for the nominative. On the other hand, in some cases the Caighdeán retained classical spellings even though none of the dialects had retained the corresponding pronunciation. Again, Manx and Scottish Gaelic reflect this pronunciation much more clearly than Irish does Manx ec, Scottish aig. In many cases, however, the Caighdeán can only refer to the Classical language, in that every dialect is different, as for example in the personal forms of ag. In part this is why the Caighdeán is not universally respected by native speakers. Native speakers traditionally spoke their own dialect or the Classical dialect if they had knowledge of that. The Caighdeán verb system is a prime example, with the reduction in irregular verb forms and personal forms of the verb — except for the first person. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in defining standard Irish. In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable. An Caighdeán Oifigiúil—Caighdeán Athbhreithnithe As of August 2012, the first major revision of the Caighdeán Oifigiúil is available, both online and in print. Among the changes to be found in the revised version are, for example, various attempts to bring the recommendations of the Caighdeán closer to the spoken dialect of Gaeltacht speakers, including allowing further use of the nominative case where the genitive would historically have been found. Main article: This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper , you may see instead of characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see. In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. While broad—slender pairs are not unique to Irish being found, for example, in Russian , in Irish they have a grammatical function. Main articles: , , , and Irish is a , ,. Irish is neither nor , and makes liberal use of verbs. Nouns for 3 : , , ; 2 : masculine, feminine; and 4 : ainmneach and , gairmeach , ginideach , and tabharthach. Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or nouns. The is called the by convention. Verbs for 3 and an impersonal form in which no can be determined. The and many other forms are. There are a number of preverbal marking the , , , , etc. There is a , and. Verb forms are highly , many grammars recognise only. Some prepositions different cases depending on intended. The word ag at , becomes agam at me in the first person singular. When used with the verb bí to be , ag indicates. Irish shares this attribute with Russian. Indicated in by a sí buailte a dot written above the consonant, it is shown in by adding a h. In idiomatic English usage, this diacritic is frequently referred to simply as the fada, where the adjective is used as a noun. The fada serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. Traditional orthography had an additional diacritic — a over some consonants to indicate. In modern Irish, the letter h suffixed to a consonant indicates that the consonant is lenited. Thus, for example, 'Gaelaċ' has become 'Gaelach'. Around the time of the , Séamas Daltún, in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin the official translations department of the Irish government , issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved by the State and called the Official Standard or Caighdeán Oifigiúil. It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected. The , called a ponc séimhithe or sí buailte often shortened to buailte , derives from the punctum delens used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. Lenition of c, p, and t was indicated by placing the letter h after the affected consonant; lenition of other sounds was left unmarked. Later both methods were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except l and n, and two competing systems were used: lenition could be marked by a buailte or by a postposed h. Eventually, use of the buailte predominated when texts were written using Gaelic letters, while the h predominated when writing using Roman letters. Letters with the buailte are available in and see Latin Extended Additional chart. Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael. An Clóchomhar Tta 1979. Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference. Oxford University Press 2002. The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape. Walter de Gruyter, 2011. The Sound Structure of Modern Irish. De Gruyter Mouton 2014. Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818—1827. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 2009. The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893—1910. Syracuse University Press 2008. Irish and English: Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600—1900. Four Courts Press 2012. Baile Átha Cliath: An Clóchomhar Tta 1981. Labhrann Laighnigh: Téacsanna agus Cainteanna ó Shean-Chúige Laighean. David Lasagabaster and Ángel Huguet. Kim McCone and others. Retrieved 24 September 2017. Archived from PDF on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2017. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. Retrieved 5 January 2015. Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla 2d ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society. An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. University of Wisconsin Press. The New York Times. Ball and James Fife eds. Retrieved 7 July 2012. The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Archived from on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018. Archived from on 18 March 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2016. A Phonetic Study of the Irish of Tory Island, County Donegal. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast. Grammar of Ros Goill Irish, County Donegal. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast. There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in at the time of the 1851 census: see Fitzgerald 1984. Retrieved 16 February 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2015. Retrieved 2 August 2012. Seirbhís Thithe an Oireachtais. Retrieved 2 August 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2012. M67B Gramadach na Gaeilge 9781406425766 390 10. Seirbhís Thithe an Oireachtais. Rinneadh iarracht ar leith san athbhreithniú seo foirmeacha agus leaganacha atá ar fáil go tréan sa chaint sna mórchanúintí a áireamh sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil Athbhreithnithe sa tslí is go mbraithfeadh an gnáthchainteoir mórchanúna go bhfuil na príomhghnéithe den chanúint sin aitheanta sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil agus, mar sin, gur gaire don ghnáthchaint an Caighdeán Oifigiúil anois ná mar a bhíodh. Seirbhís Thithe an Oireachtais. Retrieved 2 August 2012. Triaileadh, mar shampla, aitheantas a thabhairt don leathnú atá ag teacht ar úsáid fhoirm an ainmnigh in ionad an ghinidigh sa chaint. An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. Retrieved 13 October 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
